...
The
...
knowledge
...
of
...
how
...
things
...
are
...
connected
...
The
...
system
...
theory
...
was
...
proposed
...
in
...
the
...
1940's
...
as
...
a
...
reaction
...
against
...
the
...
scientific
...
approach
...
to
...
understanding
...
natural
...
process
...
by
...
studying
...
the
...
details
...
separately
...
and
...
independently.
...
Systems
...
theory
...
argues
...
that,
...
however
...
complex
...
or
...
diverse
...
the
...
world
...
that
...
we
...
experience,
...
we
...
will
...
always
...
find
...
different
...
types
...
of
...
organization
...
in
...
it,
...
and
...
such
...
organization
...
can
...
be
...
described
...
by
...
concepts
...
and
...
principles
...
which
...
are
...
independent
...
from
...
the
...
specific
...
domain
...
at
...
which
...
we
...
are
...
looking.
...
Although
...
the
...
system
...
approach
...
in
...
principle
...
considers
...
all
...
types
...
of
...
systems,
...
it
...
in
...
practices
...
focuses
...
on
...
the
...
more
...
complex,
...
adaptive
...
self-regulating
...
systems
...
which
...
we
...
might
...
call
...
'cybernetic'.
...
An
...
example
...
of
...
a
...
simple
...
cybernetic
...
system
...
is
...
a
...
person
...
filling
...
a
...
glass
...
from
...
a
...
water
...
tap.
...
This
...
system
...
is
...
determined
...
by
...
objects
...
(a
...
water
...
tap,
...
water
...
and
...
a
...
glass)
...
and
...
action
...
(opening
...
the
...
tap
...
and
...
observing
...
whether
...
the
...
glass
...
is
...
filled
...
or
...
not),
...
the
...
effect
...
of
...
the
...
action
...
(the
...
water
...
flow),
...
an
...
actor
...
(the
...
person
...
that
...
observes
...
and
...
opens
...
the
...
tap)
...
and
...
a
...
focus
...
(the
...
desire
...
to
...
fill
...
a
...
glass
...
with
...
water).
...
It
...
is
...
cybernetic
...
because
...
the
...
objects,
...
processes,
...
actions
...
and
...
observations
...
interact.
...
The
...
focus
...
is
...
our
...
filter
...
of
...
all
...
the
...
phenomena
...
in
...
real
...
life.
...
Due
...
to
...
this
...
filter
...
we
...
are
...
not
...
interested
...
in
...
this
...
cybernetic
...
system
...
in
...
the
...
material
...
of
...
the
...
glass,
...
the
...
feelings
...
of
...
the
...
actor
...
or
...
the
...
pressure
...
in
...
the
...
waterpipe.
...
The real system has many aspects that are irrelevant for our action or our understanding. So we made a model, a mental construction of the real system, that enables us to understand the process of filling a glass with water. The significance of this model is not determined by the way it reflects the real system, but by its usefulness to act and to learn.
Characteristics of a system
A system is a group of parts that interact according to some kind of process. Systems are often visualized or modelled as component blocks with some kind of connections drawn. All systems have the same common characteristics. These common characteristics are summarized below:
- All systems have some structure.
- All systems are schematizations of reality.
- They all function in the same way.
- There are functional as well as structural relationships between the units of a system.
- Function implies the flow and transfer of some material. Systems exchange energy and matter internally and with their surrounding environment through various processes of input and output.
- Function requires the presence of some driving force, or some source of energy.
- All systems show some degree of integration.
Focus or putting system theory into practice
Dynamic systems, like groundwater systems, are very complex. Any attempt to describe the whole system in all its complex details is a never-ending story. We can only solve problems in complex dynamic systems when we simplify the system. The simplification of the system we use in IMS is that of a conceptual model. As a simplification the conceptual model has the same characteristics as the complex system. The logic of the simplification process comes from the focus: our choice to consider some aspects of the system as more important than other aspects. The main focus of the IMS is: 'how do we manage risks that come from soil and groundwater contamination'.
A stepwise approach
A general approach to the application of system theory into practice is formulated by Michael Goodman. It starts with story telling. The story connects people that are able to tell their part in it. It focuses the group of people on a problem or an ambition and it is the best form to communicate. Technical experts often think that they only can tell the story if they have data to convince other people, but in complex systems the collection of adequate data requires a supporting stakeholder group.
The IMS has 4 steps modelled on this general approach:
- Definition-phase, dealing with the definition of problems, processes, the focus and the structure.
- Going deeper into the risk assessment: determining risks.
- Going deeper into the scenarios: determining management scenarios.
- Planning of the interventions: the management plan, the monitoring plan and the review plan
After these steps, the story should be retold, with an emphasis on the concerted action and the positive effects of these actions. This 'second generation' story is the basis for the actual management strategy.